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IMP 2. Limits

By Jingnan Huang · September 22, 2025 · 6370 Words

IMP2.Limits
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Last Edit: 9/22/25

Multivariable Limit Definition(多元极限定义)
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$$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} f(x,y) = \lim_{P \to P_0} f(x,y) = L $$

$$ | f(x,y) - L | < \varepsilon $$

当且仅当 \((x,y)\) 在 \(f(x,y)\) 的定义域内,并且

$$ 0 < |P - P_0| = \sqrt{(x-a)^2 + (y-b)^2} < \delta $$

Note(注释):

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Definition of Boundary Points and Interior Points
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Interior & Boundary Point
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Location of P_0
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Definition of Open and Closed Regions/Sets
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Methods For Determining Existence or Nonexistence of Limits
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Methods to Apply
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  1. Basic limit laws(基本极限定律) → 用直接法 (direct method)
  2. Factoring numerator(分子因式分解) → 直接法
  3. Multiply by an algebraic conjugate(乘以代数共轭) → 直接法
  4. Squeeze theorem(夹逼定理) → 本课程不涉及
  5. Change of variables(变量代换) → 可以用直接法,或者 2-path test(两路径检验),或者 contrapositive method(逆否命题法)

Basic Limit Laws
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Theorem 15.1: Limits of Constant and Linear Functions
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  1. Constant function(常数函数)
    • \(f(x,y) = c\)
    • \(\lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} c = c\)
  2. Linear function(线性函数)
    • \(f(x,y) = x\)
    • \(\lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} x = a\)
  3. Linear function
    • \(f(x,y) = y\)
    • \(\lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} y = b\)

Theorem 15.2: Limit Laws of Two Variables
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  1. Sum(和)

    $$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} [f(x,y) + g(x,y)] = L + M $$

  2. Difference(差)

    $$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} [f(x,y) - g(x,y)] = L - M $$

  3. Constant multiple(常数倍)

    $$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} c f(x,y) = cL $$

  4. Product(乘积)

    $$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} f(x,y) g(x,y) = LM $$

  5. Quotient(商)

    $$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} \frac{f(x,y)}{g(x,y)} = \frac{L}{M},条件:M \neq 0 $$

  6. Power(幂次)

    $$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} [f(x,y)]^n = L^n $$

  7. Root(开方)

    $$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} [f(x,y)]^{1/n} = L^{1/n},条件:若 n 为偶数,则要求 L > 0 $$

Ex. Factoring Numerator Direct Example
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$$ z = \lim_{(x, y) \to (4,4)} \frac{x^2 - y^2}{x - y} $$

$$ z=\frac{(x + y)(x - y)}{x - y}=\frac{(x + y)(x - y)}{x - y} = x + y $$

$$ z = \lim_{(x, y) \to (4,4)} x + y= \lim_{(x,y)\to(4,4)} x + \lim_{(x,y)\to(4,4)} y = 4 + 4 = 8 $$

Ex. Change of Variables
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\(\text{Determine if } \lim_{(x,y)\to(0,0)} \frac{x^2 y}{x^2 + y^2} \text{ exists and if so compute its value.}\)

这里提供一种思路, 当出现 \(x^2 + y^2\) 时,使用 Polar coordinates,有

$$ x = g(u,v) = v \cos u, \quad y = h(u,v) = v \sin u $$

\(u,v \mapsto x,y\) 必须是一一对应(one-to-one)并且满射(onto)

$$ \frac{x^2 y}{x^2 + y^2} \to \frac{(v\cos u)^2 (v\sin u)}{v^2} = v \cos^2 u \sin u $$

$$ z = \lim_{v \to 0} v \cos^2 u \sin u = 0 \quad \text{(对于所有 u)} $$

Process for Assuming Limit DNE
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Two Path Test
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Change of Variable Options to Implement Two Path Test
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  1. 替换法:通过替换 \(x=g(u,v),y=h(u,v)\),目的是使极限表达式依赖于新变量u 或 v
  2. 幂函数法:\(y = m x^n \quad \text{或} \quad x = m y^n\)
    • n 由用户选择
    • m 取固定常数,不同的 m 对应不同的路径(curve/path)
Ex. Change of Variable Example 1 (Approach 1)
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$$ z = \lim_{(x,y)\to(0,0)} \frac{(x+y)^2}{x^2 + y^2} $$

$$ x=v\cos u,y=v\sin u,v≥0, 0≤u<2π $$

$$ z = \lim_{v \to 0} \frac{(v \cos u + v \sin u)^2}{v^2} = \lim_{v \to 0} \left( 1 + 2 \cos u \cdot \sin u \right) $$

Ex. Change of Variable Example 1 (Approach 2)
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$$ z = \lim_{(x, y) \to (0, 0)} \frac{(x + y)^2}{x^2 + y^2} $$

$$ z = \lim_{x \to 0} \frac{(x + mx)^2}{x^2 + (mx)^2} = \lim_{x \to 0} \frac{(1 + m)^2 x^2}{x^2 (1 + m^2)} = \frac{(1 + m)^2}{1 + m^2} $$

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Continuity
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Definition of Continuity
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  1. f is defined at the point \((a,b)\) and is equal to some value \(f(a,b)\)
  2. \(\lim_{(x, y) \to (a, b)} f(x, y) \quad \text{exist}\)
  3. \(\lim_{(x, y) \to (a, b)} f(x, y) = f(a, b)\)

  1. Determine continuity within the domain excluding boundary points
  1. Determine continuity at boundary points
Ex.
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现在有 Function

$$ f(x, y) = \begin{cases} \frac{3xy^2}{x^2 + y^4}, & \text{if } (x, y) \ne (0, 0) \ 0, & \text{if } (x, y) = (0, 0) \end{cases} $$

f(x, y) is forced to take on a value at (0,0)

$$ {(x, y) \mid x \ne 0 \text{ 且 } y \ne 0} $$

$$ f(x, y) = \frac{3xy^2}{x^2 + y^4} = \frac{3m y^4}{m^2 y^4 + y^4} = \frac{3m}{m^2 + 1} $$

当函数中出现 x 的次数比 y 多的情况下,可以使用 \(x = my\)

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Continuity of Composite Functions
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和 Single Variable 的 Case 一样

Ex. Identify the range of continuous
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Identify where function \(z = \ln(x^2 + y^2 + 4)\) continuous

Ex. Identify point function continuous
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Where is function

$$ z =\begin{cases} \dfrac{\sin(x^2 y)}{x^2 y}, & x^2 y \ne 0 \ 1, & x^2 y = 0 \end{cases} $$

continuous

$$ \lim_{u \to 0} \frac{\sin(u)}{u} = \lim_{u \to 0} \frac{\frac{d}{du}(\sin(u))}{\frac{d}{du}(u)} = \lim_{u \to 0} \frac{\cos(u)}{1} = 1 $$

LHopital’s

Partial Derivatives and Differentiability
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Definition of Partial Derivative
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$$ f_x(a) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(a+h) - f(a)}{h} $$

$$ f_x(a, b) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(a+h, b) - f(a, b)}{h} $$

$$ f_y(a, b) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(a, b+h) - f(a, b)}{h} $$

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Ex. Calculate PD using Definition
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有函数 \(f(x,y)=x^2y\),分别计算 x 和 y 的 PD

$$ \begin{align} \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} = f_x &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(x+h,y) - f(x,y)}{h} \[6pt] &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{(x+h)^2y - x^2y}{h} \[6pt] &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{(x^2 + 2xh + h^2 - x^2)y}{h} \[6pt] &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{(2x+h)hy}{h} \[6pt] &= \lim_{h \to 0} (2x+h)y = 2xy \end{align} $$

$$ \begin{align}\frac{\partial f}{\partial y} = f_y &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(x,y+h) - f(x,y)}{h} \[6pt]&= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{x^2(y+h) - x^2y}{h} \[6pt]&= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{x^2(y+h-y)}{h} \[6pt]&= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{x^2h}{h} \[6pt]&= x^2\end{align} $$

Higher-Order Partial Derivatives and Notation
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Notation 1 Notation 2
\(\dfrac{\partial}{\partial x} \left( \dfrac{\partial f}{\partial x} \right) = \dfrac{\partial^2 f}{\partial x^2}\) \(((f_x)x = f{xx}\)
\(\dfrac{\partial}{\partial y} \left( \dfrac{\partial f}{\partial y} \right) = \dfrac{\partial^2 f}{\partial y^2}\) \((f_y)y = f{yy}\)
\(\dfrac{\partial}{\partial x} \left( \dfrac{\partial f}{\partial y} \right) = \dfrac{\partial^2 f}{\partial x \partial y}\) \((f_y)x = f{yx}\)
\(\dfrac{\partial}{\partial y} \left( \dfrac{\partial f}{\partial x} \right) = \dfrac{\partial^2 f}{\partial y \partial x}\) \((f_x)y = f{xy}\)

Equality of Mixed Partial Derivatives(混合偏导数相等)
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$$ f_{xy} = f_{yx} $$

即先对 x 再对 y 求 PD,和先对 y 再对 x 求 PD,结果是一样的

Differentiability of a Function with 1 Variable
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$$ f’(x) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(x + h) - f(x)}{h} $$

$$ \Delta y = f’(x) \Delta x + \epsilon_1 \Delta x $$

Ex. Differentiability of a Function with 1 Variable
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有函数:\(y = x^2\),分析在 \((a, a^2)\) 点上的 Differentiability

$$ \Delta y = f(a + \Delta x) - f(a) = (a + \Delta x)^2 - a^2 $$

$$ \Rightarrow a^2 + 2a \Delta x + (\Delta x)^2 - a^2 = 2a \Delta x + (\Delta x)^2 $$

$$ \Rightarrow \Delta y = 2a \Delta x + (\Delta x)^2 $$

$$ \Delta y = f’(x)\Delta x + \epsilon_1 \Delta x $$

$$ \Delta y = 2a \Delta x + \epsilon_1 \Delta x $$

$$ 2a \Delta x + (\Delta x)^2 = 2a \Delta x + \epsilon_1 \Delta x $$

$$ (\Delta x)^2 = \epsilon_1 \Delta x \Rightarrow \epsilon_1 = \Delta x $$

Differentiability of a Function with 2 Variables
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$$ \Delta z = f(a + \Delta x, b + \Delta y) - f(a, b) $$

$$ \Delta z = f_x(a,b)\Delta x + f_y(a,b)\Delta y + \epsilon_1 \Delta x + \epsilon_2 \Delta $$

Ex. Differentiability of a Function with 2 Variables
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验证函数 \(z=x3+xy2+7z = x^3 + xy^2 + 7\) 在点 \((x, y) = (a, b)\) 是否可导

$$ \Delta z = f_x(a,b)\Delta x + f_y(a,b)\Delta y + \epsilon_1 \Delta x + \epsilon_2 \Delta y $$

$$ \begin{align*} f_x(a,b) &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(a+h,b) - f(a,b)}{h} \ &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{(a+h)^3 + (a+h)b^2 + 7 - a^3 - ab^2 - 7}{h} \ &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{3a^2h + 3ah^2 + h^3 + hb^2}{h} \ &= \lim_{h \to 0} \left( 3a^2 + 3ah + h^2 + b^2 \right) \ &= 3a^2 + b^2 \end{align*}

$$

$$ \begin{align*} f_y(a,b) &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(a,b+h) - f(a,b)}{h} \ &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{a^3 + a(b+h)^2 + 7 - a^3 - ab^2 - 7}{h} \ &= \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{2abh + ah^2}{h} \ &= \lim_{h \to 0} \left( 2ab + ah \right) \ &= 2ab \end{align*}

$$

$$ \begin{align*}\Delta z &= f(a+\Delta x, b+\Delta y) - f(a,b) \&= (a+\Delta x)^3 + (a+\Delta x)(b+\Delta y)^2 + 7 - a^3 - ab^2 - 7 \&= a^3 + 3a^2\Delta x + 3a(\Delta x)^2 + (\Delta x)^3 + ab^2 + 2ab\Delta y + a(\Delta y)^2 \&\quad + \Delta x b^2 + 2b\Delta x \Delta y + \Delta x(\Delta y)^2 + 7 - a^3 - ab^2 - 7 \&= 3a^2\Delta x + 3a(\Delta x)^2 + (\Delta x)^3 + 2ab\Delta y + a(\Delta y)^2 \&\quad + \Delta x b^2 + 2b\Delta x \Delta y + \Delta x(\Delta y)^2\end{align*} $$

$$ f_x(a,b) \Delta x = (3a^2 + b^2)\Delta x,\quad f_y(a,b) \Delta y = 2ab \Delta y $$

$$ \epsilon_1 \Delta x = 3a (\Delta x)^2 + (\Delta x)^3 $$

$$ \epsilon_2 \Delta y = a(\Delta y)^2 + 2b \Delta x \Delta y + \Delta x (\Delta y)^2 $$

$$ \epsilon_1 = 3a \Delta x + (\Delta x)^2 $$

$$ \epsilon_2 = a \Delta y + 2b \Delta x + \Delta x \Delta y $$

Differentiability of a Function with 2 Variables (Method 2)
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这是一个形如 \(z=α+βx+γy\) 的 Plane

$$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(a,b)} \frac{E_d}{|(x-a,y-b)|} = 0 $$

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Ex. Differentiability of a 2 Variable function (Method 2)
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有函数

$$ f(x,y) = \begin{cases} \dfrac{(x-1)(y-1)}{\sqrt{(x-1)^2+(y-1)^2}}, & (x,y)\neq(1,1) \ 0, & (x,y)=(1,1) \end{cases} $$

$$ f_x(1,1) = \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(1+h,1)-f(1,1)}{h} = 0 $$

$$ f_y(1,1) = \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(1,1+h)-f(1,1)}{h} = 0 $$

$$ L_{(1,1)}(x,y) = f(1,1) + f_x(1,1)(x-1) + f_y(1,1)(y-1) = 0 $$

$$ E_d = f(x,y) - L_{(1,1)}(x,y) =f(x,y)-f(1,1) $$

$$ \Rightarrow E_d = f(x,y) = \dfrac{(x-1)(y-1)}{\sqrt{(x-1)^2+(y-1)^2}} $$

$$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(1,1)} \frac{E_d}{d} =\dfrac{(x-1)(y-1)}{\sqrt{(x-1)^2+(y-1)^2}}/\sqrt{(x-1)^2+(y-1)^2} $$

$$ \Rightarrow \lim_{(x,y)\to(1,1)} \frac{E_d}{d}=\lim_{(x,y)\to(1,1)} \frac{(x-1)(y-1)}{(x-1)^2+(y-1)^2} $$

$$ x = 1 + v\cos u, \quad y = 1 + v\sin u, \quad v\geq 0,\quad 0\leq u\leq 2\pi $$

$$ \Rightarrow \lim_{(x,y)\to(1,1)}\frac{(x-1)(y-1)}{(x-1)^2+(y-1)^2} = \lim_{v\to0}\frac{v^2 \cos u \sin u}{v^2} = \cos u \sin u $$

Differentiability of a Function with 2 Variables: Special Cases
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Contrapositive argument(逆否命题)
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如果函数在 (a,b) 不可微,那么必然发生了下面两种情况之一:

  1. 至少有一个偏导数 f_x 或 f_y 在 (a,b) 不连续;
  2. 或者根本没有一个开集能保证在 (a,b) 附近定义偏导
Ex. Differentiability of 2 Variable Function (Special Case)
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证明函数

$$ f(x,y) = \begin{cases} \dfrac{x \sin y}{y}, & y \neq 0 \ x, & y = 0 \end{cases} $$

在点 (0,0) 可微

$$ f_x = \frac{\sin y}{y}, \quad y \neq 0; \quad f_x(0,0)=1 \ (\text{用L’Hôpital’s Rule算的极限}) $$

$$ f_y = x \cdot \frac{y \cos y - \sin y}{y^2}, \quad y \neq 0; \quad f_y(0,0)=0 \ (\text{用偏导定义算的极限}) $$

$$ f_x(0,0) = \lim_{(x,y)\to(0,0)} f_x(x,y), \quad f_y(0,0) = \lim_{(x,y)\to(0,0)} f_y(x,y) $$

$$ \lim_{y\to 0} \frac{\sin y}{y} = 1, \quad f_x(0,0)=1 \quad \Rightarrow \text{连续} $$

$$ \lim_{(x,y)\to(0,0)} x \cdot \frac{y \cos y - \sin y}{y^2} = 0, \quad f_y(0,0)=0 \quad \Rightarrow \text{连续} $$

Relationship Between Differentiability and Continuity
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定理:可微 ⇒ 连续

2 Variable Case
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