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Research & Engineering Archive

Calculus 9. Series

By Jingnan Huang · January 22, 2025 · 7071 Words

Last Edit: 1/22/25

Sequences
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Limit of a Sequence
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ex. Nature Number
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Properties of Limits of Sequences
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Squeeze Theorem for Sequences
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ex. Sequence Convergence by Squeeze Theorem
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Monotonic Sequences
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Bounded Sequence
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Bounded Above
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Bounded Below
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Bounded
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Theorem - Convergent Sequence are Bounded
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Series (Infinite Series)
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Convergent of Series
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Telescoping Series 列项级数
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ex. Finding Series Convergency by Telescoping
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Geometric Series
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Convergenvce of Geometric Series
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The Value Geometric Series Converge to
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Property of Infinite Series
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p-Series and Harmonic Series
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$$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{n^p} = \frac{1}{1^p} + \frac{1}{2^p} + \frac{1}{3^p} + \cdots$$

Convergence of p-Series
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Harmonic Series
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Alternating Series
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Alternating Series Remainder
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Absolute and Conditional Convergence
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Conditionally Converge
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Tests for Convergency
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The Integral Test
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Direct Comparison Test
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  1. 如果 \(n\sum b_n\) Converge,则 \(\sum a_n\) 也Converge
  2. 如果 \(\sum a_n\) Diverge,则 \(\sum b_n\) 也Diverge

Limit Comparison Test
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\(a_n > 0\) 和 \(b_n > 0\) 对所有n成立,存在极限: \(\lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{a_n}{b_n} = L\) 其中\(0 < L < \infty\)

Throrem - nth Test
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Alternating Series Test
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Ratio Test
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简单解释一下原理就是通过转化为Geometric Series后计算公比

The Root Test
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Taylor Polynomials and Approximations
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ex. First Degree Approximation for e^x
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Taylor Polynomials
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Maclaurin Polynomial
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ex. Finding a 3 degrees Taylor Polynomial for sin x at pi/6
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以\(\pi/6\)为中心找到sinx的泰勒多项式

Remainder of a Taylor Polynomial
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Taylor’s Theorem
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ex. Determing Accuracy of Approximation
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有Thrid Degree Maclaurin Polynomial \(P_3(x) = x - \frac{x^3}{3!}\),求近似\(x=0.1\)时的误差 $$\sin x = x - \frac{x^3}{3!} + R_3(x) = x - \frac{x^3}{3!} + \frac{f^{(4)}(z)}{4!}x^4$$

ex. Approximating a Value to a Desired Accuracy
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Determine the degree of the Taylor polynomial expanded about c=1 that should be used to approximate \(\ln(1.2)\) so that the error is less than 0.001

Power Series
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Center of Power Sereis
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Radius and Interval of Convergency
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ex. Finding the radius of Convergence (R=1)
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ex. Finding the radius of Convergence (\(R=\infty\))
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End Point Convergence
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ex. Finding Interval of Convergence
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Properties of Functions Defined by Power Series
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Representation of Functions by Power Series
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Power Series仅在Convergence Interval中拟合Function

ex. Find Geometeric Power Sereis Centerd at 0
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找一个拟合function \(f(x) = \frac{4}{x + 2}\) 的Power Series

Operations with Power Series
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$$f(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n x^n \text{ and } g(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} b_n x^n$$ $$f(kx) =\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n (kx)^n$$ $$f(x^N) =\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n (x^N)^n$$ $$f(x) \pm g(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} (a_n + b_n) x^n$$

ex. Finding Power Series by Integration
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找到Power Series Representation of \(f(x)=\ln x\)

ex. 2. Finding a Power Series by Integration
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找到 \(g(x)=\arctan x\) 的Power Series

Taylor and Maclaurin Series
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Binomial Series
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POWER SERIES FOR ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
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$$\frac{1}{x} = 1 - (x - 1) + (x - 1)^2 - (x - 1)^3 + \cdots, \quad 0 < x < 2$$ $$\frac{1}{1 + x} = 1 - x + x^2 - x^3 + x^4 - \cdots, \quad -1 < x < 1$$ $$\ln x = (x - 1) - \frac{(x - 1)^2}{2} + \frac{(x - 1)^3}{3} - \frac{(x - 1)^4}{4} + \cdots, \quad 0 < x < 2$$ $$e^x = 1 + x + \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^3}{3!} + \frac{x^4}{4!} + \cdots, \quad -\infty < x < \infty$$ $$\sin x = x - \frac{x^3}{3!} + \frac{x^5}{5!} - \frac{x^7}{7!} + \cdots, \quad -\infty < x < \infty$$ $$\cos x = 1 - \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^4}{4!} - \frac{x^6}{6!} + \cdots, \quad -\infty < x < \infty$$ $$\arctan x = x - \frac{x^3}{3} + \frac{x^5}{5} - \frac{x^7}{7} + \cdots, \quad -1 \leq x \leq 1$$ $$\arctan x = x - \frac{x^3}{3} + \frac{x^5}{5} - \frac{x^7}{7} + \cdots, \quad -1 \leq x \leq 1$$ $$\arcsin x = x + \frac{1 \cdot 3 x^3}{2 \cdot 4} + \frac{1 \cdot 3 \cdot 5 x^5}{2 \cdot 4 \cdot 6} + \cdots, \quad -1 \leq x \leq 1$$ $$(1 + x)^k = 1 + kx + \frac{k(k-1)x^2}{2!} + \frac{k(k-1)(k-2)x^3}{3!} + \cdots, \quad -1 < x < 1^*$$